Tag Archives: Online First

Sustainable helminth control in ruminants using plant secondary metabolites: A systematic and bibliometric review

Sutiastuti Wahyuwardani¹, Dwi Yulistiani^2*, Ferdy Saputra², Gresy Eva Tresia², Lisa Praharani², Achmad Fanindi², Cecep Hidayat², Susana Insusila Watyning Rakhmani², Tiurma Pasaribu², Santiananda Arta Asmarasari², Raphaella Widiastuti¹, Dyah Haryuningtyas Sawitri¹, Diana Andrianita Kusumaningrum², Endang Sutedi², Eni Siti Rohaeni², Tatan Kostaman², Try Zulchi Prasetiyo Hariyadi²

¹Research Center for Veterinary Science, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, Indonesia

²Research Center for Animal Husbandry, Research Organization for Agriculture and Food, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, West Java, Indonesia

*Corresponding author’s email: dwiy009@brin.go.id

Received: 07 April 2026 / Revised: 29 June 2026 / Accepted: 03 July 2026 / Published Online: 05 August 2026

Abstract

Gastrointestinal helminthiasis continues to be one of the major constraints limiting the productivity of ruminant livestock throughout the world, especially in the tropics and subtropics, leading to economic and welfare impacts. Frequent use of commercial anthelmintics has increased cases of drug resistance, raising fears about adverse effects on the environment and contamination of animal-based products. Plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) have increasingly emerged as an environmentally friendly alternative for controlling helminths. In this study, bibliometrics was combined with a systematic review conducted following the PRISMA protocol to assess the global research dynamics and anthelmintic activity of PSMs on ruminants. In total, 176 publications from 2015 to 2025 underwent bibliometric analysis, whereas 117 eligible publications were considered for the systematic review. The findings indicate that there is a positive trend towards publication volume with a peak in 2019 and then stabilisation in subsequent years. The keyword analysis indicated that three main thematic areas exist: parasitology and field studies, bioactivity assessment, and phytochemistry. The results indicate that PSMs possess considerable anthelmintic potential via various pathways, such as the interference with the parasite, inhibition of egg hatching, larval development, and host-parasite interaction. Nevertheless, an evident discrepancy between in vitro experiments and in vivo/field trials has been highlighted, emphasizing an essential limitation of transferring the experimental results into practice. Therefore, the current work presents a valuable compilation of global research trends and knowledge gaps, underlining the necessity for a standardized approach, as well as in vivo/field validation, which would facilitate sustainable management of helminths using plant resources.

Keywords: Gastrointestinal nematodes, Ruminants, Plant secondary metabolites, Anthelmintic activity, Sustainable parasite control, Anthelmintic resistance

Phytochemical characterization, antioxidant capacity and pectin properties of Passiflora edulis fruits cultivated under dry subtropical conditions of the Absheron peninsula

Vusala Badalova¹*, Zumrud Mammadova¹, Gullu Aliyeva¹, Minara Hasanova¹, Latafat Mustafayeva¹, Saleh Maharramov², Samira Bagirova³, Tamella Karimova⁴, Sevinc Guliyeva¹, Gunay Mammadova¹, Mehriban Qafarova¹, Vagida Mammadova⁵, Ramiz Alakbarov¹, Shalala Gulmammadova¹, Irada Mammadova¹, Ihama Mirjalalli¹, Venera Ahmadova¹, Khayala Alibayli¹

¹Institute of Botany PLE, Ministry of Science and Education of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Baku, Azerbaijan

²Institute of Genetic Resources PLE, Ministry of Science and Education of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Baku, Azerbaijan

³Dendrology Garden PLE, Baku, Azerbaijan

⁴Faculty of Biology and Technology, Odlar Yurdu University, Baku, Azerbaijan

⁵Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University, Baku, Azerbaijan

*Corresponding author’s email: drvusalabadalova@gmail.com

Received: 03 March 2026 / Revised: 14 June 2026 / Accepted: 02 July 2026 / Published Online: 30 July 2026

Abstract

The introduction of tropical fruit species into new agroecological zones may significantly influence their phytochemical composition and bioactive potential. The aim of this study was to evaluate the phytochemical profile, antioxidant activity, mineral composition, and physicochemical properties of pectin extracted from fruits of Passiflora edulis cultivated under the dry subtropical conditions of the Absheron Peninsula (Azerbaijan). Lipophilic bioactive compounds were quantified using HPLC. The fruit pericarp exhibited a high β-carotene content (23.56 ± 3.17 µg/g), moderate lycopene levels (1.60 ± 0.31 µg/g), and detectable amounts of vitamins A and E (1.46 ± 0.22 and 0.56 ± 0.05 µg/g, respectively). ICP-OES analysis revealed adequate levels of K, Mg, Fe, and Zn, confirming the fruit’s nutritional relevance. Total phenolic (2.22 ± 0.03 mg GAE/g), flavonoid (1.41 ± 0.01 mg QE/g), and tannin contents were determined spectrophotometrically. Antioxidant capacity assessed via DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, CUPRAC, β-carotene-linoleic acid acid assays demonstrated considerable radical scavenging and reducing activity, particularly in methanolic extracts. Pectin isolated from fruit by-products showed an intrinsic viscosity of 0.38, molecular weight of 5247 g/mol, and Huggins constant of 0.14, indicating favorable polymer characteristics for potential pharmaceutical and hydrogel applications. The results demonstrate that P. edulis fruits cultivated under Absheron conditions retain significant bioactive and functional properties, highlighting their potential as nutraceutical ingredients and as a source of value-added biopolymers. This study contributes to understanding the metabolic adaptation of introduced tropical species and supports their industrial valorization in arid subtropical environments.

Keywords: Carotenoids, Antioxidant activity, Phenolic compounds, Pectin, Dry subtropical climate, Nutraceutical potential

Historical trends in pod shattering resistance and agronomic traits of Indonesian soybean varieties released from 1919 to 2021

Ayda Krisnawati¹, Mochammad Muchlish Adie^1*, Yuliantoro Baliadi¹, Rudy Soehendi¹, Muchdar Soedarjo¹

¹Research Center for Food Crops, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Jl. Raya Jakarta Bogor km 46 Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia 16911

*Corresponding author’s email: mm_adie@yahoo.com

Received: 28 February 2026 / Revised: 21 June 2026 / Accepted: 02 July 2026 / Published Online: 30 July 2026

Abstract

Pod shattering has become one of the causes for significant yield losses in soybean production in the tropics. This study aimed to evaluate the changes in agronomic traits and pod shattering resistance, to identify the historical trends, and to assess the relationships among yield and yield components. This research was conducted in the field and laboratory. A field experiment was carried out in Malang, East Java, Indonesia during the dry season 2024, and the laboratory experiment was done to evaluate the pod shattering resistance. Genetic variation was found among varieties. Based on the trend analysis, there is a gradual decrease in pod shattering susceptibility (0.265%) in recent released varieties, indicates a consistent increase in pod shattering resistance. Modern cultivars tend to flower earlier and have a more compact plant architecture, with larger seeds but fewer full pods. Based on correlation analysis, the characters of plant height, number of nodes, and number of branches can be utilized as selection indicator to obtain high yielding soybean genotypes. Overall, the results indicate the achievement of soybean breeding in Indonesia in reducing yield losses and give useful traits for selecting high-yielding and shattering-resistant varieties.

Keywords: Genetic variation, Modern cultivar, Selection, Trend analysis, Yield loss

Sustainable management of food crop systems and cropping patterns on volcanic and sedimentary drylands for enhanced productivity and farmer prosperity

Popi Rejekiningrum¹, Zainal Arifin²*, Evy Latifah², Amik Krismawati², Sri Satya Antarlina³, Moh. Saeri⁴, Baswarsiati², Chendy Tafakresnanto⁵, Dwi Setyorini⁶, Annisa Dhienar Alifia²

¹Research Center for Limnology and Water Resources, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong, West Java 16911, Indonesia

²Research Center for Horticulture, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong, West Java 16911, Indonesia

³Research Centre for Food Technology and Processing, National Research and Innovation Agency, Playen, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta 55861, Indonesia

⁴Research Centre for Behavioural and Circular Economy, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jakarta 12710, Indonesia

⁵Research Center for Food Crops, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong, West Java 16911, Indonesia

⁶Research Center for Estate Crops, National Research and Innovation Agency, Cibinong, West Java 16911, Indonesia

*Corresponding author’s email: zain013@brin.go.id

Received: 18 February 2026 / Revised: 24 June 2026 / Accepted: 01 July 2026 / Published Online: 30 July 2026

Abstract

A growing portion of Indonesia’s dryland is dependent on agriculture, which necessitates adaptive technologies to assure year-round productivity and increase farmer income. This study created technological packages for food crops grown in a single-cropping system during the dry season in arid climate drylands. The methods were evaluated on one-hectare plots of volcanic soil (Situbondo) and sediment soil (Sumenep) with rice, corn, and soybeans. The rice-corn//corn system on volcanic soil produced the highest rice equivalent yield (18.1 t ha−1; CII 0.82; CI 285), followed by the corn-soybean-corn system on sediment soil (14.6 t ha−1; CII 0.80; CI 300). The LERs were 1.44 for corn double row relay planting with soybean (volcanic soil) and 1.52 for corn + soybean in sediment soil. Rice double row on volcanic soil yielded the highest profit (8.6 t ha−1; IDR 24.73 million; R/C 3.20), followed by corn double row on sediment soil (5.5 t ha−1; IDR 8.53 million; R/C 1.78).

Keywords: Cropping systems and patterns, Rice, Corn, Soybean, Yield, Dryland, Volcanic soil, Sediment soil

Implications of selective logging on carbon stocks and CO2 emission potential for supporting sustainable natural forest management

Soenarno¹, Yuniawati^1*, Lutfy Abdulah¹, Ika Heriansyah¹, Marfuah Wardani¹, Darwo¹, Rosita Dewi¹, Titi Kalima¹, Sona Suhartana¹, Nina Mindawati¹, Parwa Oryzanti¹, I Wayan Widhana Susila¹, Pudja Mardi Utomo², Rachman Effendi¹, Sarah Andini¹, Totok Kartono Waluyo³, Siswadi⁴, dan Yanto Rochmayanto⁵

¹Research Center for Ecology, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jalan Raya Jakarta-Bogor KM. 46 Cibinong, Bogor 16911, Indonesia

²Research Center for Biota System, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jalan Raya Jakarta-Bogor KM. 46 Cibinong, Bogor 16911, Indonesia

³Research Center for Applied Botany, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jalan Raya Jakarta-Bogor KM. 46 Cibinong, Bogor 16911, Indonesia

⁴Research Center for Pharmaceutical Ingredients and Traditional Medicine, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jl. Raya Bogor KM.46, Cibinong Science Center, 16911, Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia

⁵Directorate of Environment, Maritime, Natural Resources, and Nuclear Policies, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jakarta Pusat 10340, Indonesia

*Corresponding author’s email: yuni029@brin.go.id

Received: 17 February 2026 / Revised: 21 June 2026 / Accepted: 28 June 2026 / Published Online: 25 July 2026

Abstract

Tropical natural forests are vital ecosystems that provide a wide range of ecosystem functions, biodiversity conservation, and most critically, carbon stock and sequestration. Selective logging with the reduced impact logging (RIL) technique still generates logging residues and residual stand damage, which reduces the forest’s ability to recover and function as a long-term carbon stock. This study presents an integrative assessment of carbon loss resulting from RIL operations in tropical forests by simultaneously quantifying emissions from logging residues and residual stand damage. The study was conducted in a log over area of natural mountain forest at PT. Kayu Tribuana Rama, which is geographically located at 01°13’01″–01°29’49” South latitude and 112°12’12″–112°36’43” East longitude. The results show that the total potential carbon stock and CO₂ emission after logging reached 4.804-ton C. ha^-1, equivalent to 17.612 ton CO₂eq.ha^-1, comprising 15.4% from logging residues and 18.2% from residual stand damage. Logging efficiency ranged from 74.8% to 78.7%, with an average of 75.9%, while the degree of residual stand damage ranged from 27.5% to 37.1%, with an average of 33.6%, classified as moderate damage. The calculation of forest carbon and potential CO₂ emissions after logging in natural production forests must integrate calculations from logging residues and residual stand damage to improve the methodology within the carbon Measurement, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) system. The development of this methodological approach is essential for improving the accuracy of logging-related emission estimates and supporting performance-based incentive schemes, including payments for environmental services, carbon credit mechanisms, and sustainable biodiversity credits.

Keywords: Selective logging, Logging residues, Residual stand damage, Post-logging carbon emissions, Carbon stock and stock, Sustainable tropical natural forests

Physical characteristics and the relationship between genetic diversity, phenotypic diversity, heritability test and morphological character in several varieties of lowland rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Baharudin¹, Abdul Fattah¹, I. Nyoman Widiarta¹, Susilawati¹, Ayyub Ar Rahman^1*, Dwi P. Widiastuti¹, Twenty Liana¹, Muhamad Hidayanto¹, Khojin Supriadi¹, Sri Wahyuni Budiarti¹, M. Sudjak Saenong¹, Abdi Negara¹, Asni Ardjanhar¹, Rahmi H², Muh. Asaad², Entis Sutisna³, Ida Andriani⁴, Amiruddin Syam⁵, La Karimuna⁶, Robiatul Adawiyah⁶

¹Research Center for Food Crops, National Research and Innovation Agency, Raya Bogor St. Km. 46, Cibinong 16911, West Java, Indonesia

²Research Center for Horticulture, National Research and Innovation Agency, Raya Bogor St. Km. 46, Cibinong 16911, West Java, Indonesia

³Research Center for Social Welfare, Village, and Connectivity, Research Organization for Governance, Economy, and Community Welfare, St. Gatot Subroto, No. 10. Indonesia

⁴Research Center for Behavioral and Circular Economic, Research Organization for Governance, Economy, and Community Welfare, St. Gatot Subroto, No. 10. Indonesia

⁵Research Center for Macroeconomics and Financial, Research Organization for Governance, Economy, and Community Welfare, St. Gatot Subroto, No.10. Indonesia

⁶Lecturer at the Department of Agrotechnology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Halu Oleo, Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia

*Corresponding author’s email: ayyu002@brin.go.id

Received: 27 February 2026 / Revised: 22 June 2026 / Accepted: 28 June 2026 / Published Online: 08 July 2026

Abstract

Plant characteristics, genetic diversity, and heritability are some of the factors that influence rice growth and production. This study aims to determine the physical characteristics and the relationship between genotype variants, heritability tests, and genetic progress that can contribute to rice production in lowland irrigated rice fields. This study was conducted from October 2022 to March 2023 in North Buton Regency, Southeast Sulawesi. The design used in this study was a Randomized Block Design with 7 varieties and 3 replications. The research data were analyzed based on the procedures of variance, genetic variance, heritability, agromorphological characteristics, partial correlation, and cross tests. The results obtained showed that the highest plant height characteristics were found in Ciherang (110 cm), the highest plant age was found in Ciherang (120 days). The characteristics of the 7 varieties tested, lodging properties, 57.14% were somewhat resistant to lodging and 42.86% were resistant to lodging. Pest resistance properties, tungro resistance (8.04%), resistance to brown planthopper (57.14%), and resistance to leaf blight (85.71%). Furthermore, regarding the correlation relationship, dry grain yield is positively correlated with the number of productive tillers, plant height, panicle length, grain weight, number of empty grains, full grains, and weight per 1000 grains. The genetic variation values of plant height, number of panicles, grain weight, and weight per 1000 grains are higher in the Inpari-7, Inpari-11, Inpari-13, Inpari-14, Inpari-15, Inpari-20 varieties. The highest dry grain yield is found in Inpari-13, Inpari-15, and Inpari-20 compared to Ciherang.

Keywords: Rice variety, Low land rice, Characteristics, Genetic diversity, Heritability, Grain yield

Breaking recalcitrance: Advances in chilli pepper biotechnology and genome editing

Munsif Ali Shad¹, Nisa Fitriani Nur Azizah^1,2, Syahdad Nabil Mudzaffar^1,3, Muhammad Dylan Lawrie¹, Aqwin Polosoro¹, Kusumawaty Kusumanegara⁴, Supatmi Supatmi¹, Andi Nadia Nurul Lathifa Hatta¹, Eny Ida Riyanti¹, Edy Listanto¹, Nurul Fitriah¹, Ima Mulyama Zainuddin¹, Yuni Wahyuni¹*

¹Research Center for Genetic Engineering, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, Indonesia

²Study Program of Biology, Faculty of Military Mathematics and Natural Sciences, The Republic of Indonesia Defense University, Bogor, Indonesia

³Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia

⁴Research Center for Horticulture, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, Indonesia

*Corresponding author’s email: wahy026@brin.go.id

Received: 01 March 2026 / Revised: 21 June 2026 / Accepted: 23 June 2026 / Published Online: 01 July 2026

Abstract

Chilli peppers (Capsicum spp.) are important spices and horticultural crops that are subject to biotic and abiotic stresses. Genetic improvement in these species is challenging due to their inherent recalcitrance to tissue culture-based regeneration and genetic transformation. We comprehensively surveyed strategies to enhance in vitro regeneration in Capsicum spp., including the use of morphogenic regulators, plant hormones, explant selections, growth enhancers, and culture medium standardizations. In parallel, highlighting transformation methods that can supplement existing regeneration protocols or entirely bypass them, including in planta, biolistic, protoplast transfections, virus and nanoparticle-based gene delivery, and synergistic approaches. Additionally, this review article discusses various genetic engineering tools, such as transgenic overexpression, RNA interference (RNAi), Virus-Induced Gene Silencing (VIGS), Virus-Induced Genome Editing (VIGE), and CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, which are enriching the Capsicum spp. genomes, enabling rapid functional characterization, and producing heritable genetic modifications. By integrating current understandings and novel biotechnological advancements, this review provides a foundation for Capsicum spp. genetic improvement, enhancing its stress resilience and productivity.

Keywords: Capsicum spp., Regeneration, Transformation, Genetic engineering, Genome editing

Impact of dehydration temperature on the nutritional, phytochemical and volatile flavor profile of mango (Mangifera indica L.) varieties from the subtropical region of Pakistan

Khizar Hayat¹, Umar Farooq^1*, Afshan Shafi², Zulqurnain Khan³

¹Department of Food Science and Technology, MNS- University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan

²Department of Food Sciences, Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan

³Institute of Plant Breeding and Biotechnology, MNS- University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan

*Corresponding author’s email: umrar.farooq@mnsuam.edu.pk

Received: 10 March 2026 / Revised: 03 June 2026 / Accepted: 11 June 2026 / Published Online: 29 June 2026

Abstract

Mango (Mangifera indica L.), a member of the Anacardiaceae family, is widely known as the “King of Fruits” due to its unique flavor and taste. Pakistan ranks among the top ten mango-producing countries; however, less than 10% of total production is exported, and up to 70% is lost at postharvest level, limiting its market value. This highlights the need for mango valorization through value addition to reduce losses and increase economic returns. In this study, major mango varieties of subtropical region of Pakistan (Chaunsa, Sindhri, and Fajri) were processed using dehydration technology. Fruits were graded, washed, peeled, and sliced before drying in a hot air dehydrator at 50 °C, 60 °C, and 70 °C. Both fresh and dried samples were analyzed for nutritional composition, phytochemicals, and volatile flavor compounds using GC-MS. Sindhri exhibited higher ash (0.48±0.01%) and mineral content, while Chaunsa showed superior phytochemical and flavor profiles with 175.00±1.73 mg GAE/100g of total phenolic contents and 77.67±0.33% antioxidant activity. Identified volatile compounds included aldehydes, ketones, terpenes, alcohols, and esters, contributing to mango’s characteristic aroma. Major compounds detected were acetic acid, butanone, furanmethanol, and glyceraldehyde. Butane derivatives varied across varieties, including butanediol (Fajri), butyrolactone (Chaunsa), and 1-butanol (Chaunsa and Sindhri). Drying temperature significantly affected flavoring profile. Some compounds were lost, while others transformed into new compounds, with the most pronounced changes occurring at 70 °C. Overall, drying at 50–60 °C was found optimal for producing dehydrated mango slices with maximum retention of flavors, nutrients and acceptability.

Keywords: Dehydration, Volatile compounds, Flavoring compound, Phenolics

Culture practices and characterization of diatoms using morphological and molecular based methods: A review

Caroline Widayat^1,2, Yenny Risjani^1,2*, Rachmi Nurdiani², Paul B Hamilton³, Cuneyt N Solak^4,2

¹Research Center on Algae and Environment (ALGAEN Center), University of Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia, Jl. Veteran, Malang, 65145, Indonesia

²Department of Aquatic Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Universitas Brawijaya, Jl. Veteran, Malang, 65145, Indonesia

³Phycology Section, Research and Collections Divisions, Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, ON K1P6P4, Canada

⁴Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Art, University of Dumlupınar, 43000 Kütahya, Turkiye

*Corresponding author’s email: risjani@ub.ac.id

Received: 01 March 2026 / Revised: 24 May 2026 / Accepted: 03 June 2026 / Published Online: 19 June 2026

Abstract

From the early culturing research of Louis Pasteur (1857-1864) the current use of microbial cultures in scientific research for genetics, virology, bacteriology, mycology and the characterization of algae is extensively documented. Further, cultures have been invaluable in studying the genetic production of amino acids, and general metabolic processing for basic cellular functions and pharmaceuticals. In diatom research, cultures have been instrumental in studying systematics, cell movement, contaminant impacts and resistance, silica valve formation, lipid (biofuel) production and advancements in nanotechnology. The continued documentation of morphological variations in diatom species supported by molecular data, using cultures, is scientifically essential in determining diatom evolutionary relationships and the functional realities within their cellular ecosystem services. This article reviews selected procedures and methods of isolation and culturing specifically related to phycology, including small- and large-scale open culture systems, and closed systems using photobioreactors.

Keywords: Diatom, Isolation, Cultivation, Characterization, Photobioreactor

Effects of thermal processing on the bioactivity of Panax vietnamensis extract from Son La, Vietnam

Nguyen Thi Minh Tu^1*, Vu Hong Son¹, Nguyen Thi Thao¹, Nguyen Tien Huy¹, Hoang Thi Le Hang², Tran Thi Ngoc Thu³

¹Food Engineering Department, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam

²Fruit and Vegetable Research Institute, Vietnam National University of Agriculture, Gia Lam, Hanoi, Vietnam

³University of Technology and Education, The University of Danang, Danang City, Vietnam

*Corresponding author’s email: tu.nguyenthiminhtu@hust.edu.vn

Received: 12 February 2026 / Revised: 21 May 2026 / Accepted: 03 June 2026 / Published Online: 19 June 2026

Abstract

Thermal processing is widely applied to improve the functional properties of ginseng through structural transformation of ginsenosides. This study evaluated the effects of controlled thermal treatment (75 °C in 70% ethanol) on the phyt^ochemical composition and bioactivity of Panax vietnamensis Ha et Grushv. cultivated in Son La, Vietnam. The major saponins investigated in this study included majonoside R2 (ocotillol-type); the protopanaxatriol (PPT)-type ginsenosides Rg1, Re, and Rh1, along with notoginsenoside R1; and the protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenosides Rb1 and Rd. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis revealed that thermal treatment resulted in a significant reduction in key polar ginsenosides, specifically a 56.6% decrease in notoginsenoside R1 (from 0.99% to 0.43%) and a 35.9% decrease in ginsenoside Rg1 (from 3.15% to 2.02%), accompanied by the relative enrichment of less-polar derivatives formed through deglycosylation. Rd acted as an intermediate in the conversion pathway, while the characteristic ocotillol-type saponin Majonoside R2 showed notable thermal stability with partial structural modification. These compositional changes were strongly linked to enhanced antioxidant activity, demonstrated by reduced DPPH IC₅₀ values after processing. The results demonstrate that integrated hydrothermal extraction, which replicates the traditional practices currently used by ginseng farmers, effectively modulates the polarity balance of the saponin matrix and enhances the biofunctional quality of P. vietnamensis. This approach provides a practical, scientifically validated framework for developing value-added ginseng products through a thermal process that significantly improves antioxidant potential.

Keywords: Antioxidant, Bio-activity, Ginsenoside transformation, Ocotillo-type saponins, Panax vietnamensis, Thermal processing